The US Commerce Department starkly exposed China's reliance on American technology this year when it blocked US companies from selling vital components to Chinese telecommunications hardware maker ZTE, forcing it to halt almost all of its operations.

In China, ZTE's crisis reinforced the belief that the country needs to become more self-sufficient.

"You're going to see probably more intensive efforts at domestic innovation," said Scott Kennedy, an expert on the Chinese economy at the Center for Strategic and International Studies.

But developing advanced tech industries, such as semiconductors, while cutting dependence on the United States "will be difficult" in the short term, he cautioned. That's because Chinese companies rely heavily on American-made chips to build smartphones and mobile networks.

Beijing's aggressive campaign to build more sophisticated manufacturing industries is one of the US government's main grievances in the trade war. The Trump administration has accused China of using unfair practices, such as intellectual property theft, to get hold of American tech secrets. The Chinese government disputes the allegations.

The deteriorating relations with the United States may prompt China to step up cooperation on advanced technology with Japan, South Korea, Israel and European countries, Kennedy said.

Beijing has been pushing through reforms in areas like intellectual property protection in recent months as it seeks to encourage the development of more homegrown technology, according to Kenny Liew, an analyst at research firm Fitch Solutions.

"The government is doubling down," he said. "The trade war will definitely accelerate these kinds of reforms."

China has already come a long way. Over the past 20 years, its giant export machine has shifted away from goods such as clothes and toys toward electronics and smartphones.

"China is no longer a cheap place to produce low-end goods," said Xu Bin, a professor of economics and finance at the China Europe International Business School in Shanghai.

Chinese companies are "very responsive to changing environments" and tariffs add "an additional force to push Chinese private companies to upgrade," he added.

The waves of new tariffs are also raising questions about China's appeal as a manufacturing hub. Companies say they are considering shifting production to other countries to avoid the extra costs, putting pressure on the Chinese government to find ways to offset the damage.

Beijing has long been criticized for restrictive economic policies that shut foreign companies out of large swathes of its economy and favor local businesses, particularly big state-owned enterprises. Chinese leaders insist they are committed to gradually opening the economy at a suitable pace.

The trade war could speed up that process.